Novel Tree Shrew Cytochrome P450 2Ds (CYP2D8a and CYP2D8b) Are Functional Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes that Metabolize Bufuralol and Dextromethorphan.

Tree shrews are a nonprimate species used in a range of biomedical studies. Recent genome analysis of tree shrews found that the sequence identities and the numbers of genes of cytochrome P450 (CYP or P450), an important family of drug-metabolizing enzymes, are similar to those of humans. However, tree shrew P450s have not yet been sufficiently identified and analyzed. In this study, novel CYP2D8a and CYP2D8b cDNAs were isolated from tree shrew liver and were characterized, along with human CYP2D6, dog CYP2D15, and pig CYP2D25. The amino acid sequences of these tree shrew CYP2Ds were 75%-78% identical to human CYP2D6, and phylogenetic analysis showed that they were more closely related to human CYP2D6 than rat CYP2Ds, similar to dog and pig CYP2Ds. For tree shrew CYP2D8b, two additional transcripts were isolated that contained different patterns of deletion. The gene and genome structures of CYP2Ds are generally similar in dogs, humans, pigs, and tree shrews. Tree shrew CYP2D8a mRNA was most abundantly expressed in liver, among the tissue types analyzed, similar to dog CYP2D15 and pig CYP2D25 mRNAs. Tree shrew CYP2D8b mRNA was also expressed in liver, but at a level 7.3-fold lower than CYP2D8a mRNA. Liver microsomes and recombinant protein of both tree shrew CYP2Ds metabolized bufuralol and dextromethorphan, selective substrates of human CYP2D6, but the activity level of CYP2D8a greatly exceeded that of CYP2D8b. These results suggest that tree shrew CYP2D8a and CYP2D8b are functional drug-metabolizing enzymes, of which CYP2D8a is the major CYP2D in liver. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Novel tree shrew CYP2D8a and CYP2D8b cDNAs were isolated from liver. Their amino acid sequences were 75%-78% identical to human CYP2D6. For CYP2D8b, two additional transcripts contained different patterns of deletion. Tree shrew CYP2D8a mRNA was abundantly expressed in liver, similar to dog CYP2D15 and pig CYP2D25 mRNAs. Recombinant tree shrew CYP2Ds catalyzed the oxidation of bufuralol and dextromethorphan. Tree shrew CYP2D8a and CYP2D8b are functional drug-metabolizing enzymes, of which CYP2D8a is the major CYP2D in liver.

Molecular and functional characterization of flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMO1-6) in tree shrews.

Flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs) are a family of important drug oxygenation enzymes that, in humans, consist of five functional enzymes (FMO1-5) and a pseudogene (FMO6P). The tree shrew is a non-rodent primate-like species that is used in various biomedical studies, but its usefulness in drug metabolism research has not yet been investigated. In this study, tree shrew FMO1-6 cDNAs were isolated and characterized by sequence analysis, tissue expression, and metabolic function. Compared with human FMOs, tree shrew FMOs showed sequence identities of 85-90 % and 81-89 %, respectively, for cDNA and amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis showed that each tree shrew and human FMO were closely clustered. The genomic and genetic structures of the FMO genes were conserved in tree shrews and humans. Among the five tissue types analyzed (lung, heart, kidney, small intestine, and liver), FMO3 and FMO1 mRNAs were most abundant in liver and kidney, respectively. Recombinant tree shrew FMO1-6 proteins expressed in bacterial membranes all mediated benzydamine and trimethylamine N-oxygenations and methyl p-tolyl sulfide S-oxygenation. The selective human FMO3 substrate trimethylamine was predominantly metabolized by tree shrew FMO3. Additionally, tree shrew FMO6 was active toward trimethylamine, as is cynomolgus macaque FMO6, in contrast with the absence of activity of the human FMO6P pseudogene product. Tree shrew FMO1-6, which are orthologous to human FMOs (FMO1-5 and FMO6P) were identified, and tree shrew FMO3 has functional and molecular features generally comparable to those of human FMO3 as the predominant FMO in liver.

RNA-Seq and miRNA-Seq data from Epstein-Barr virus-infected tree shrews reveal a ceRNA network contributing to immune microenvironment regulation.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection in humans is ubiquitous and associated with various diseases. Remodeling of the immune microenvironment is the primary cause of EBV infection and pathogenesis; however, the underlying mechanism has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we used whole-transcriptome RNA-Seq to detect mRNAs, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA), and microRNA (miRNA) profiles in the control group, 3 days, and 28 days after EBV infection, based on the tree shrew model that we reported previously. First, we estimated the proportion of 22 cell types in each sample using CIBERSORT software and identified 18 high-confidence DElncRNAs related to immune microenvironment regulation after EBV infection. Functional enrichment analysis of these differentially expressed lncRNAs primarily focused on the autophagy, endocytosis, and ferroptosis signalling pathways. Moreover, EBV infection affects miRNA expression patterns, and many miRNAs are silenced. Finally, three competing endogenous RNA regulatory networks were built using lncRNAs that significantly correlated with immune cell types, miRNAs that responded to EBV infection, and potentially targeted the mRNA of the miRNAs. Among them, MRPL42-AS-5 might act as an hsa-miR-296-5p "sponge" and compete with target mRNAs, thus increasing mRNA expression level, which could induce immune cell infiltration through the cellular senescence signalling pathway against EBV infection. Overall, we conducted a complete transcriptomic analysis of EBV infection in vivo for the first time and provided a novel perspective for further investigation of EBV-host interactions.

Methylation of the leptin gene promoter is associated with a negative correlation between leptin concentration and body fat in Tupaia belangeri.

AIMS: Leptin is a signaling protein secreted by white adipose tissue encoded by the obesity gene, and its main function is to regulate the food intake and energy metabolism in mammals. Previous studies had found that animal leptin concentration was positively correlated with its body fat, but the leptin concentration of Tupaia belangeri was negatively correlated with its body fat mass. The present study attempted to investigate the mechanisms of leptin concentration negatively correlated with its body fat mass in T. belangeri. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We measured the leptin concentration of the two groups of animals by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantified the leptin mRNA expression by qPCR. Then, the histological, transcriptomic, and bisulfite sequencing of the two groups of animals were studied. Moreover, to investigate the energy metabolism under the negative correlation, we also analyzed the metabolomics and metabolic rate in T. belangeri. KEY FINDINGS: We revealed the negative correlation was mediated by leptin gene methylation of subcutaneous adipose tissue. Further, we also found that T. belangeri increased energy metabolism with leptin decreased. SIGNIFICANCE: We challenge the traditional view that leptin concentration was positively correlated with body fat mass, and further revealed its molecular mechanism and energy metabolism strategy. This special leptin secretion mechanism and energy metabolism strategy enriched our understanding of energy metabolism of animals, which provided an opportunity for the clinical transformation of metabolic diseases.

Highly Similar Tetramerization Domains from the p53 Protein of Different Mammalian Species Possess Varying Biophysical, Functional and Structural Properties.

The p53 protein is a transcriptional regulatory factor and many of its functions require that it forms a tetrameric structure. Although the tetramerization domain of mammalian p53 proteins (p53TD) share significant sequence similarities, it was recently shown that the tree shrew p53TD is considerably more thermostable than the human p53TD. To determine whether other mammalian species display differences in this domain, we used biophysical, functional, and structural studies to compare the properties of the p53TDs from six mammalian model organisms (human, tree shrew, guinea pig, Chinese hamster, sheep, and opossum). The results indicate that the p53TD from the opossum and tree shrew are significantly more stable than the human p53TD, and there is a correlation between the thermostability of the p53TDs and their ability to activate transcription. Structural analysis of the tree shrew and opossum p53TDs indicated that amino acid substitutions within two distinct regions of their p53TDs can dramatically alter hydrophobic packing of the tetramer, and in particular substitutions at positions corresponding to F341 and Q354 of the human p53TD. Together, the results suggest that subtle changes in the sequence of the p53TD can dramatically alter the stability, and potentially lead to important changes in the functional activity, of the p53 protein.

Tree shrew cytochrome P450 2E1 is a functional enzyme that metabolises chlorzoxazone and p-nitrophenol.

Cytochromes P450 (CYPs or P450s) are important enzymes for drug metabolism. Tree shrews are non-primate animal species used in various fields of biomedical research, including infection (especially hepatitis viruses), depression, and myopia. A recent tree shrew genome analysis indicated that the sequences and the numbers of P450 genes are similar to those of humans; however, P450s have not been adequately identified and analysed in this species.In this study, a novel CYP2E1 was isolated from tree shrew liver and was characterised in comparison with human, dog, and pig CYP2E1. Tree shrew CYP2E1 and human CYP2E1 showed high amino acid sequence identity (83%) and were closely related in a phylogenetic tree.Gene and genome structures of CYP2E1 were generally similar in humans, dogs, pigs, and tree shrews. Tissue expression patterns showed that tree shrew CYP2E1 mRNA was predominantly expressed in liver, just as for dog and pig CYP2E1 mRNAs. In tree shrews, recombinant CYP2E1 protein and liver microsomes metabolised chlorzoxazone and p-nitrophenol, probe substrates of human CYP2E1, just as they do in dogs and pigs.These results suggest that tree shrew CYP2E1 encodes a functional drug-metabolising enzyme that plays a role in the liver, similar to human CYP2E1.

Expression of Testis-specific Serine/Threonine Kinases during the Reproductive and Nonreproductive Seasons and Their Localization in Mature Spermatozoa of Tree Shrews (Tupaia belangeri).

Tree shrews display obvious reproductive cycles, and sexually mature male tree shrews produce little or no sperm with extremely low motility during the nonreproductive season; the mechanism underlying this phenomenon remains unknown. Because testis-specific serine/threonine kinases (TSSK) are specifically expressed in the testis and male germ cells of mammals, we hypothesized that they may have an important role in spermatogenesis or sperm function regulation in tree shrews. In addition, the expression, distribution, subcellular localization, and dynamic changes of TSSK in tree shrew sperm are unclear. Here we show that during the reproductive season, the seminiferous tubules were significantly larger as compared with the nonreproductive season and contained mature sperm and other germ cells. The mRNA expression of Tssk genes in testis was significantly higher than that in other tissues, and the mRNA level in the testis during the reproductive season was significantly higher than that in nonreproductive season. In addition, the mRNA level of Tssk3 in the testis and sperm was significantly higher than that of other members. Specifically, Tssk1 mRNA was distributed in the acrosome and throughout the flagellum of tree shrew sperm, Tssk2 was present in the acrosome, Tssk3 was localized to postacrosomal region and relocated to the main part of the flagellum after capacitation, and Tssk6 was distributed in the acrosome and postacrosomal region. These results indicate that the TSSK are important regulating reproductive function in tree shrews.

Newly identified cytochrome P450 3A genes of tree shrews and pigs are expressed and encode functional enzymes.

Novel cytochrome P450 3A5 (CYP3A5) cDNA in tree shrews (which are non-rodent primate-like species) and pig CYP3A227 cDNA were identified, along with known pig CYP3A22, CYP3A29, and CYP3A46 cDNAs. All five cDNAs contained open reading frames encoding a polypeptide of 503 amino acids that shared high sequence identity (72-78 %) with human CYP3A4 and were more closely related to human CYP3As than rat CYP3As by phylogenetic analysis. CYP3A5 was the only CYP3A in the tree shrew genome, but pig CYP3A genes formed a CYP3A gene cluster in the genomic region corresponding to that of human CYP3A genes. Tree shrew CYP3A5 mRNA was predominantly expressed in liver and small intestine, among the tissues analyzed, whereas pig CYP3A227 mRNA was most abundantly expressed in jejunum, followed by liver. Metabolic assays established that tree shrew CYP3A5 and pig CYP3A proteins heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli metabolized typical human CYP3A4 substrates nifedipine and midazolam. These results suggest that novel tree shrew CYP3A5 and pig CYP3A227 were functional enzymes able to metabolize human CYP3A4 substrates in liver and small intestine, similar to human CYP3A4, although pig CYP3A227 mRNA was minimally expressed in all tissues analyzed.

Newly Identified Tree Shrew Cytochrome P450 2A13 is Expressed in Liver and Lung and Encodes a Functional Drug-Metabolizing Enzyme Similar to Dog Cytochrome P450 2A13 and Pig Cytochrome P450 2A19.

The tree shrew, a non-rodent primate-like species, is used in various fields of biomedical research, including hepatitis virus infection, myopia, depression, and toxicology. Recent genome analysis found that the numbers of cytochrome P450 (P450 or CYP) genes are similar in tree shrews and humans and their sequence identities are high. Although the P450s are a family of important drug-metabolizing enzymes, they have not yet been fully investigated in tree shrews. In the current study, tree shrew CYP2A13 cDNA was isolated from liver, and its characteristics were compared with those of pig, dog, and human CYP2As. Tree shrew CYP2A13 amino acid sequences were highly identical (87-92%) to the human CYP2As and contained sequence motifs characteristic of P450s. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that tree shrew CYP2A13 was more closely related to human CYP2As than to rat CYP2As, similar to dog and pig CYP2As. Among the tissue types analyzed, tree shrew CYP2A13 mRNA was preferentially expressed in liver and lung, similar to dog CYP2A13 mRNA, whereas dog CYP2A25 and pig CYP2A19 mRNAs were predominantly expressed in liver. Tree shrew liver microsomes and tree shrew CYP2A13 proteins heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli catalyzed coumarin 7-hydroxylation and phenacetin O-deethylation, just as human, dog, and pig CYP2A proteins and liver microsomes do. These results demonstrate that tree shrew CYP2A13 is expressed in liver and lung and encodes a functional drug-metabolizing enzyme. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Novel tree shrew cytochrome P450 2A13 (CYP2A13) was identified and characterized in comparison with human, dog, and pig CYP2As. Tree shrew CYP2A13 isolated from liver had high sequence identities and close phylogenetic relationships to its human homologs and was abundantly expressed in liver and lung at the mRNA level. Tree shrew CYP2A13 metabolized coumarin and phenacetin, human selective CYP2A6 and CYP2A13 substrates, respectively, similar to dog and pig CYP2As, and is a functional drug-metabolizing enzyme likely responsible for drug clearances.

Novel cytochrome P450 1 (CYP1) genes in tree shrews are expressed and encode functional drug-metabolizing enzymes.

Tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri) are a non-rodent primate-like species sometimes used for biomedical research involving hepatitis virus infections and toxicology. Genome analysis has indicated similarities between tree shrews and humans in the numbers of cytochromes P450 (P450 or CYP), which constitute a family of important drug-metabolizing enzymes; however, P450s have not been fully investigated in tree shrews. In this study, we identified CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, and CYP1D1 cDNAs from tree shrew liver and compared their characteristics with dog, pig, and human CYP1As. The deduced amino acid sequences of tree shrew CYP1s were highly identical (82-87 %) to human CYP1s. In tree shrews, CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 mRNAs were preferentially expressed in liver, whereas CYP1D1 mRNA was preferentially expressed in kidney and lung. In contrast, CYP1B1 mRNA was expressed in various tissues, with the most abundant expression in spleen. Among the tree shrew CYP1 mRNAs, CYP1A2 mRNA was most abundant in liver, and CYP1B1 mRNA was most abundant in kidney, small intestine, and lung. All tree shrew CYP1 proteins heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli catalyzed caffeine and estradiol in a similar manner to tree shrew liver microsomes and human, dog, and pig CYP1 proteins. These results suggest that tree shrew CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, and CYP1D1 genes, different form human pseudogene CYP1D1P, are expressed in liver, small intestine, lung, and/or kidney and encode functional drug-metabolizing enzymes important in toxicology.

Molecular cloning and characterization of NPC1L1 in the Chinese tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri chinensis).

BACKGROUND: The Niemann-Pick C1-Like 1 protein, a multi-transmembrane domain molecule, is critical for intestinal cholesterol absorption, and is the entry factor for hepatitis C virus (HCV). The Chinese tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri chinensis) is closer to primates in terms of genetic evolution than rodents. Previous studies indicated that the tree shrew was suitable for HCV research; however, little is known about tree shrew NPC1L1. METHODS AND RESULTS: TsNPC1L1 cDNA was amplified by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) technology. The cDNA sequence, its encoded protein structure, and expression profile were analyzed. Results indicated that the tsNPC1L1 mRNA is 4948 bp in length and encodes a 1326 amino acid protein. TsNPC1L1 possesses 84.97% identity in homology to human NPC1L1 which is higher than both mouse (80.37%) and rat (81.80%). The protein structure was also similar to human with 13 conserved transmembrane helices, and a sterol-sensing domain (SSD). Like human NPC1L1, the tsNPC1L1 mRNA transcript is highly expressed in small intestine, but it was also well-expressed in the lung and pancreas of the tree shrew. CONCLUSION: The homology of tree shrew NPC1L1 was closer to human than that of rodent NPC1L1. The expression of tsNPC1L1 was the highest in small intestine, and was detectable in lung and pancreas. These results may be useful in the study of tsNPC1L1 function in cholesterol absorption and HCV infection.

The lipoxygenase pathway of Tupaia belangeri representing Scandentia. Genomic multiplicity and functional characterization of the ALOX15 orthologs in the tree shrew.

The tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) is a rat-sized mammal, which is more closely related to humans than mice and rats. However, the use of tree shrew to explore the patho-mechanisms of human inflammatory disorders has been limited since nothing is known about eicosanoid metabolism in this mammalian species. Eicosanoids are important lipid mediators exhibiting pro- and anti-inflammatory activities, which are biosynthesized via lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways. When we searched the tree shrew genome for the presence of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase isoforms we found copies of functional COX1, COX2 and LOX genes. Interestingly, we identified four copies of ALOX15 genes, which encode for four structurally distinct ALOX15 orthologs (tupALOX15a-d). To explore the catalytic properties of these enzymes we expressed tupALOX15a and tupALOX15c as catalytically active proteins and characterized their enzymatic properties. As predicted by the Evolutionary Hypothesis of ALOX15 specificity we found that the two enzymes converted arachidonic acid predominantly to 12S-HETE and they also exhibited membrane oxygenase activities. However, their reaction kinetic properties (KM for arachidonic acid and oxygen, T- and pH-dependence) and their substrate specificities were remarkably different. In contrast to mice and humans, tree shrew ALOX15 isoforms are highly expressed in the brain suggesting a role of these enzymes in cerebral function. The genomic multiplicity and the tissue expression patterns of tree shrew ALOX15 isoforms need to be considered when the results of in vivo inflammation studies obtained in this animal are translated into the human situation.

Characteristics of olfactory ensheathing cells and microarray analysis in Tupaia belangeri (Wagner, 1841).

Tree shrews are most closely related to the primates and so possess a number of advantages in experimental studies; they have been used as an animal model in bacterial and virus infection, cancer, endocrine system disease, and certain nervous system diseases. Their olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are able to release several cytokines to promote neuronal survival, regeneration and remyelination. The present study used western blot analysis to identify antibody specificity in protein extracts from whole tree shrew brains to identify the specificity of p75 nerve growth factor receptor (NGFR) derived from rabbits (75 kDa). OECs were cultured and isolated, then stained and identified using the antibodies for p75NGFR. To investigate the capacity of OECs to express cytokines and growth factors, microarray technology was used, and the analysis revealed that OECs were able to express 9,821 genes. Of these genes, 44 genes were from the neurotrophic factor family, which may indicate their potential in transplantation in vivo. The present study considered the function of OECs as revealed by other studies, and may contribute to future research.

Molecular identification and antiviral function of the guanylate-binding protein (GBP) genes in the Chinese tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri chinesis).

Following viral detection and interferons (IFNs) production, several hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) are subsequently induced to act as direct antiviral effectors or regulators of the IFN signaling. The guanylate-binding protein (GBP) family belongs to IFN-inducible GTPases defending the host against a diverse group of invading pathogens such as parasites, bacteria and viruses. The Chinese tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri chinese) has been increasingly used as an alternative experimental animal to primates in studying viral infectious diseases. Hitherto, the tree shrew GBP family has not been characterized. In this study, we identified five tree shrew GBP genes (tGBP1, tGBP2, tGBP4, tGBP5 and tGBP7) and characterized their antiviral activities. All these tGBPs were ubiquitously expressed in heart, spleen, intestines, kidney, liver, lung and brain tissues of the tree shrew. IFN-γ treatment of tree shrew primary renal cells (TSPRCs) significantly induced the mRNA expression of tGBPs. Infections with Newcastle disease virus (NDV), encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) and type 1 herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) enhanced tGBPs mRNA expression in TSPRCs, but had no effect on the localization of tGBP proteins in the cytoplasm. tGBP1, but not the other four tGBPs, showed antiviral activity against vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and HSV-1 infections. Taken together, this study provided the first-hand information of the GBP family members in the Chinese tree shrew, which might assist the development of tree shrew animal model for infectious diseases.

Zika Virus Infection in Tupaia belangeri Causes Dermatological Manifestations and Confers Protection against Secondary Infection.

Animal models of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection have recently been established in mice, guinea pigs, and nonhuman primates. Tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri) are an emerging experimental animal in biomedical applications, but their susceptibility to ZIKV infection has not been explored. In the present study, we show that subcutaneous inoculation of ZIKV led to rapid viremia and viral secretion in saliva, as well as to typical dermatological manifestations characterized by massive diffuse skin rash on the trunk. Global transcriptomic sequencing of peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated from ZIKV-infected animals revealed systematic gene expression changes related to the inflammatory response and dermatological manifestations. Importantly, ZIKV infection readily triggered the production of high-titer neutralizing antibodies, thus preventing secondary homologous infection in tree shrews. However, neonatal tree shrews succumbed to ZIKV challenge upon intracerebral infection. The tree shrew model described here recapitulates the most common dermatological manifestations observed in ZIKV-infected patients and may greatly facilitate the elucidation of ZIKV pathogenesis and the development of novel vaccines and therapeutics.IMPORTANCE The reemergence of Zika virus (ZIKV) has caused a global public health crisis since 2016, and there are currently no vaccines or antiviral drugs to prevent or treat ZIKV infection. However, considerable advances have been made in understanding the biology and pathogenesis of ZIKV infection. In particular, various animal models have been successfully established to mimic ZIKV infection and its associated neurological diseases and to evaluate potential countermeasures. However, the clinical symptoms in these mouse and nonhuman primate models are different from the common clinical manifestations seen in human ZIKV patients; in particular, dermatological manifestations are rarely recapitulated in these animal models. Here, we developed a new animal model of ZIKV infection in tree shrews, a rat-sized, primate-related mammal. In vitro and in vivo characterization of ZIKV infection in tree shrews established a direct link between ZIKV infection and the immune responses and dermatological manifestations. The tree shrew model described here, as well as other available animal models, provides a valuable platform to study ZIKV pathogenesis and to evaluate vaccines and therapeutics.

Alpha-synuclein is highly prone to distribution in the hippocampus and midbrain in tree shrews, and its fibrils seed Lewy body-like pathology in primary neurons.

The Chinese tree shrew (TS) has many unique advantages that make it suitable for use as an experimental animal model for human disease including moderate body size, low cost of feeding, short reproductive cycle and lifespan, and close phylogenetic relationship to primates. Our previous studies have shown that TS treated with the mitochondrial inhibitor MPTP displayed classic Parkinsonian symptoms. Additionally, the structure of TS alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is highly homologous to that found in humans. Previous studies have concluded that misfolded, fibrillar α-syn is a hallmark of α-synucleinopathies. In this study, we examined the distribution and expression levels of α-syn in different TS brain regions. We also obtained recombinant TS α-syn protein to study its aggregation and cytotoxic properties in primary neurons. Our results showed that α-syn was expressed in numerous different brain regions in TS but was most abundant in the hippocampus and midbrain. The recombinant α-syn of TS displayed straight fibrils when incubated for 72 h in vitro, which is very similar to human α-syn. When exposed to primary neurons, the TS and human α-syn fibrils led to cytotoxicity and Lewy-like pathology. Our findings indicated that TS could be a potential animal model to study the pathology of α-synucleinopathies.

Characterization of tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) interleukin-6 and its expression pattern in response to exogenous challenge.

Tree shrews, one of the closest relatives of primates, have attracted increasing attention as a model of human diseases, particularly for viral infections. As the first line of defense against microbial pathogens, the innate immune system is crucial in tree shrews. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is important in the pathophysiology of infection, inflammation and cancer, where it promotes disease development or sustains immune reactions. The present study aimed to obtain further insight into the tree shrew IL-6 (tsIL-6) system, and the function of tsIL-6 in the antiviral and antibacterial response. In the present study, the mRNA and genomic sequence of the tsIL-6 gene were characterized, and the tissue distribution and expression profile of this gene were analyzed in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) treatment. The full-length tsIL-6 mRNA consisted of 1,152 bp with an open reading frame of 627 bp encoding 208 amino acids, a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of 62 bp, and a 3'-UTR of 436 bp. The genome sequence of the tsIL-6 gene was 5,265 bp in length, comprising of five exons and four introns. The predicted tsIL-6 protein contained a 25-amino-acid-long signal peptide and a conserved IL-6 domain. Phylogenetic analysis based on the coding sequences revealed that tsIL-6 was closely related to IL-6 in humans. Residues crucial for receptor binding were completely conserved in the tree shrew protein. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that tsIL-6 mRNA was expressed in all examined tissues of healthy tree shrews, with high levels in the muscle and spleen. Following poly I:C challenge, the expression levels of tsIL-6 were upregulated in four tissues associated with immune system, the liver, spleen, kidney and intestine. Taken together, the molecular and bioinformatics analyses based on the IL-6 sequence revealed that the tree shrew has a close phylogenetic association with humans. These results provide insight for future investigations on the structure and function of tsIL-6.

Oxidative Stress and Immune Responses During Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Tupaia belangeri.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a leading cause of chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. To address the molecular basis of HCV pathogenesis using tupaias (Tupaia belangeri), we characterized host responses upon HCV infection. Adult tupaias were infected with HCV genotypes 1a, 1b, 2a, or 4a. Viral RNA, alanine aminotransferase, anti-HCV core and anti-nonstructural protein NS3 antibody titres, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and anti-3ß-hydroxysterol-Δ24reductase (DHCR24) antibody levels were measured at 2-week intervals from 0 to 41 weeks postinfection. All HCV genotypes established infections and showed intermittent HCV propagation. Moreover, all tupaias produced anti-core and anti-NS3 antibodies. ROS levels in sera and livers were significantly increased, resulting in induction of DHCR24 antibody production. Similarly, lymphocytic infiltration, disturbance of hepatic cords, and initiation of fibrosis were observed in livers from HCV-infected tupaias. Intrahepatic levels of Toll-like receptors 3, 7, and 8 were significantly increased in all HCV-infected tupaias. However, interferon-ß was only significantly upregulated in HCV1a- and HCV2a-infected tupaias, accompanied by downregulation of sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide. Thus, our findings showed that humoral and innate immune responses to HCV infection, ROS induction, and subsequent increases in DHCR24 auto-antibody production occurred in our tupaia model, providing novel insights into understanding HCV pathogenesis.

Cholesterol induces lipoprotein lipase expression in a tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri chinensis) model of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Animal models are indispensible to investigate the pathogenesis and treatments of non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLD). Altered cholesterol metabolism has been implicated into the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Here, using high fat, cholesterol and cholate diet (HFHC), we generated a novel tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri chinensis) model of NAFLD, which displayed dyslipidemia with increased levels of plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-c) and high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c), but decreased level of triglycerides (TG). Liver histopathology and genes expression indicated that HFHC diet successfully induced liver steatosis to inflammation and fibrosis progressively within 10 weeks. Moreover, HFHC induced the transcriptional expression of lipoprotein lipase (lpl) in the liver, but repressed the expression of LDL receptor, and the endogenous synthesis pathway and excretion of cholesterol. Notably, Poloxamer 407 (P-407) inhibition of LPL improved the severity of steatosis and reduced inflammation. These results illustrated that LPL plays an important role in cholesterol metabolism in NAFLD, and the tree shrew may be a valuable animal model for further research into NAFLD.

Distributions of vesicular glutamate transporters 1 and 2 in the visual system of tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri).

Vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) proteins regulate the storage and release of glutamate from synapses of excitatory neurons. Two isoforms, VGLUT1 and VGLUT2, are found in most glutamatergic projections across the mammalian visual system, and appear to differentially identify subsets of excitatory projections between visual structures. To expand current knowledge on the distribution of VGLUT isoforms in highly visual mammals, we examined the mRNA and protein expression patterns of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), superior colliculus, pulvinar complex, and primary visual cortex (V1) in tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri), which are closely related to primates but classified as a separate order (Scandentia). We found that VGLUT1 was distributed in intrinsic and corticothalamic connections, whereas VGLUT2 was predominantly distributed in subcortical and thalamocortical connections. VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 were coexpressed in the LGN and in the pulvinar complex, as well as in restricted layers of V1, suggesting a greater heterogeneity in the range of efferent glutamatergic projections from these structures. These findings provide further evidence that VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 identify distinct populations of excitatory neurons in visual brain structures across mammals. Observed variations in individual projections may highlight the evolution of these connections through the mammalian lineage.